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Heavy Metals in Baby Food: What You Need to Know
You’ve probably heard that lead has been found in drinking water, that certain kinds of fish contain high levels of mercury, and that worrisome amounts of arsenic have been found in rice.
But you may not know why that's a problem—or that these elements (and
others, such as lead and cadmium), commonly known as “heavy metals,” are
also in many other foods. This includes foods made just for babies and
toddlers, such as popular snacks, cereals, prepared entrées, and
packaged fruits and vegetables.
Over time, exposure to heavy metals can harm the health of adults and children. One of the biggest worries: cognitive development in very young children.
“Babies and toddlers are particularly vulnerable due to their smaller size and developing brains and organ systems,” says James E. Rogers, Ph.D., director of food safety research and testing at Consumer Reports. “They also absorb more of the heavy metals that get into their bodies than adults do.”
Over time, exposure to heavy metals can harm the health of adults and children. One of the biggest worries: cognitive development in very young children.
“Babies and toddlers are particularly vulnerable due to their smaller size and developing brains and organ systems,” says James E. Rogers, Ph.D., director of food safety research and testing at Consumer Reports. “They also absorb more of the heavy metals that get into their bodies than adults do.”
That’s why CR’s food safety
team analyzed 50 nationally distributed packaged foods made for babies
and toddlers, checking for cadmium, lead, mercury, and inorganic
arsenic, the type most harmful to health.
More on Heavy Metals in Food
Children in the U.S. eat a lot of packaged baby food. More than 90
percent of parents with children 3 and under turn to these foods at
least occasionally, a new Consumer Reports national survey of more than
3,000 people found. And annual sales of baby food now top $53 billion
and are projected to reach more than $76 billion by 2021, according to
Zion Market Research.
Our tests had some troubling findings:
• Every product had measurable levels of at least one of these heavy metals: cadmium, inorganic arsenic, or lead.
• About two-thirds (68 percent) had worrisome levels of at least one heavy metal.
• Fifteen of the foods would pose potential health risks to a child regularly eating just one serving or less per day.
• Snacks and products containing rice and/or sweet potatoes were particularly likely to have high levels of heavy metals.
• Organic foods were as likely to contain heavy metals as conventional foods.
While those results are worrisome, parents who have been feeding these foods to their children don’t need to panic, says James Dickerson, Ph.D., chief scientific officer at Consumer Reports. He notes that consuming these foods doesn’t guarantee that a child will develop health problems, but that it may simply increase that risk. And whether problems develop depends on a host of factors, including genetics and exposure to other sources of heavy metals, such as from lead paint or contaminated water.
Our testing did have some encouraging findings for parents: It showed that 16 of the products had less concerning levels of the heavy metals, suggesting that all baby food manufacturers should be able to achieve similar results.
What’s more, there are important steps parents can take right now to reduce their child’s health risks. See "What Parents Can Do," below.
Our tests had some troubling findings:
• Every product had measurable levels of at least one of these heavy metals: cadmium, inorganic arsenic, or lead.
• About two-thirds (68 percent) had worrisome levels of at least one heavy metal.
• Fifteen of the foods would pose potential health risks to a child regularly eating just one serving or less per day.
• Snacks and products containing rice and/or sweet potatoes were particularly likely to have high levels of heavy metals.
• Organic foods were as likely to contain heavy metals as conventional foods.
While those results are worrisome, parents who have been feeding these foods to their children don’t need to panic, says James Dickerson, Ph.D., chief scientific officer at Consumer Reports. He notes that consuming these foods doesn’t guarantee that a child will develop health problems, but that it may simply increase that risk. And whether problems develop depends on a host of factors, including genetics and exposure to other sources of heavy metals, such as from lead paint or contaminated water.
Our testing did have some encouraging findings for parents: It showed that 16 of the products had less concerning levels of the heavy metals, suggesting that all baby food manufacturers should be able to achieve similar results.
What’s more, there are important steps parents can take right now to reduce their child’s health risks. See "What Parents Can Do," below.
How Heavy Metals Can Harm Children
The human body needs small amounts of certain heavy metals, such as iron and zinc, to function properly. But cadmium, inorganic arsenic, lead, and mercury (especially methylmercury) can be toxic for everyone and pose particular risks for young children.
Exposure to even small amounts of these heavy metals at an early age may increase the risk of several health problems, especially lower IQ and behavior problems, and have been linked to autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
“The effects of early exposure to heavy metals can have long-lasting impacts that may be impossible to reverse,” says Victor Villarreal, Ph.D., an assistant professor in the department of educational psychology at the University of Texas at San Antonio who has researched the effects of heavy metals on childhood development.
For example, researchers at Duke University looked at 565 adults who had their lead levels measured as children. Those with high childhood lead readings had IQ levels 4.25 points lower, on average, than those with lower childhood lead levels.
Exposure to inorganic arsenic may also affect IQ, according to a recent Columbia University study of third- through fifth-graders in Maine. Students who had been exposed to arsenic in drinking water had IQ levels 5 to 6 points lower, on average, than students who had not been exposed.
Exposure to even small amounts of these heavy metals at an early age may increase the risk of several health problems, especially lower IQ and behavior problems, and have been linked to autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
“The effects of early exposure to heavy metals can have long-lasting impacts that may be impossible to reverse,” says Victor Villarreal, Ph.D., an assistant professor in the department of educational psychology at the University of Texas at San Antonio who has researched the effects of heavy metals on childhood development.
For example, researchers at Duke University looked at 565 adults who had their lead levels measured as children. Those with high childhood lead readings had IQ levels 4.25 points lower, on average, than those with lower childhood lead levels.
Exposure to inorganic arsenic may also affect IQ, according to a recent Columbia University study of third- through fifth-graders in Maine. Students who had been exposed to arsenic in drinking water had IQ levels 5 to 6 points lower, on average, than students who had not been exposed.
Long-Term Risks
The risks from heavy metals grow over time, in part because they accumulate in the kidneys and other internal organs.
“These toxins can remain in your body for years,” says Tunde Akinleye, a chemist in Consumer Reports’ Food Safety Division who led our testing. Regularly consuming even small amounts over a long period of time may raise the risk of bladder, lung, and skin cancer; cognitive and reproductive problems; and type 2 diabetes, among other conditions.
And research has shown that even in adults, frequent, consistent exposure to low levels of heavy metals can contribute to other serious health problems.
A recent study in the journal Lancet Public Health suggests that low levels of lead from food and other sources contribute to about 400,000 deaths each year, more than half of them from cardiovascular disease. Getting too much methylmercury can cause nerve damage, muscle weakness, lack of coordination, and impaired vision and hearing. And over time, cadmium exposure can lead to kidney, bone, and lung diseases.
“These toxins can remain in your body for years,” says Tunde Akinleye, a chemist in Consumer Reports’ Food Safety Division who led our testing. Regularly consuming even small amounts over a long period of time may raise the risk of bladder, lung, and skin cancer; cognitive and reproductive problems; and type 2 diabetes, among other conditions.
And research has shown that even in adults, frequent, consistent exposure to low levels of heavy metals can contribute to other serious health problems.
A recent study in the journal Lancet Public Health suggests that low levels of lead from food and other sources contribute to about 400,000 deaths each year, more than half of them from cardiovascular disease. Getting too much methylmercury can cause nerve damage, muscle weakness, lack of coordination, and impaired vision and hearing. And over time, cadmium exposure can lead to kidney, bone, and lung diseases.
Photo: James Worrell
What CR’s Tests Found
Previous Consumer Reports work found worrisome levels of heavy metals in canned tuna, protein powders, fruit juice, and rice and rice products, including infant rice cereals.
Other nonprofit food safety organizations and the Food and Drug
Administration have also found heavy metals in some of those foods. But
this is the first time CR has looked at the levels of heavy metals in an
array of baby and toddler foods, or determined the consumption levels
that pose a risk to children. (For more information, download a PDF of CR's test protocol for heavy metals in baby and toddler foods.)
We looked at 50 popular baby and toddler foods, then purchased three samples of each from retailers across the country. (Our findings were a spot check of the market and should not be used to draw definitive conclusions about specific brands.)
The products fall into four categories:
• Baby cereals.
• Packaged fruits and vegetables.
• Packaged entrées (for example, turkey and rice dinner).
• Packaged snacks, including cookies, crackers, crunches, puffs, snack bars, wafers, and biscuits such as teething biscuits and rice rusks.
Most of the products came from the two biggest U.S. baby food manufacturers, Beech-Nut and Gerber. Other brands were Baby Mum-Mum, Earth’s Best, Ella’s Kitchen, Happy Baby, Parent’s Choice (Walmart), Plum Organics, and Sprout.
About two-thirds of the products (34) we tested contained concerning levels of cadmium, lead, and/or inorganic arsenic; 15 of them would pose a risk to a child who ate one serving or less per day.
Two rice cereals contained measurable levels of methylmercury. Although the amounts were not high enough to be associated with potential health risks from this heavy metal in our analysis, other research suggests that rice cereals may be an overlooked source of mercury in infants’ diets. For example, in tests of 119 infant cereals, researchers at Florida International University found that rice cereals had on average three times as much methylmercury as multigrain cereals and 19 times as much as other non-rice cereals.
Products made with rice fared the worst in our tests. That's because they contained worrisome amounts of inorganic arsenic, and many also had lead and cadmium.
As a category, snack foods—bars, cookies, crackers, crunches, crisps, puffs, and rice rusks and other teething biscuits—were most problematic, generally because of their rice content. That’s especially concerning because snacks are also the most common type of packaged product that babies and toddlers eat, according to CR’s recent survey. Seventy-two percent of parents said they feed their child at least one of the types of snack foods we tested.
CR’s findings that heavy metals are very common in rice products and that baby food cereals and snacks are higher in heavy metals than baby food fruit and vegetables are consistent with results from the Total Diet Study, an FDA program that monitors Americans’ intake of heavy metals and other contaminants from foods and beverages.
We looked at 50 popular baby and toddler foods, then purchased three samples of each from retailers across the country. (Our findings were a spot check of the market and should not be used to draw definitive conclusions about specific brands.)
The products fall into four categories:
• Baby cereals.
• Packaged fruits and vegetables.
• Packaged entrées (for example, turkey and rice dinner).
• Packaged snacks, including cookies, crackers, crunches, puffs, snack bars, wafers, and biscuits such as teething biscuits and rice rusks.
Most of the products came from the two biggest U.S. baby food manufacturers, Beech-Nut and Gerber. Other brands were Baby Mum-Mum, Earth’s Best, Ella’s Kitchen, Happy Baby, Parent’s Choice (Walmart), Plum Organics, and Sprout.
About two-thirds of the products (34) we tested contained concerning levels of cadmium, lead, and/or inorganic arsenic; 15 of them would pose a risk to a child who ate one serving or less per day.
Two rice cereals contained measurable levels of methylmercury. Although the amounts were not high enough to be associated with potential health risks from this heavy metal in our analysis, other research suggests that rice cereals may be an overlooked source of mercury in infants’ diets. For example, in tests of 119 infant cereals, researchers at Florida International University found that rice cereals had on average three times as much methylmercury as multigrain cereals and 19 times as much as other non-rice cereals.
Products made with rice fared the worst in our tests. That's because they contained worrisome amounts of inorganic arsenic, and many also had lead and cadmium.
As a category, snack foods—bars, cookies, crackers, crunches, crisps, puffs, and rice rusks and other teething biscuits—were most problematic, generally because of their rice content. That’s especially concerning because snacks are also the most common type of packaged product that babies and toddlers eat, according to CR’s recent survey. Seventy-two percent of parents said they feed their child at least one of the types of snack foods we tested.
CR’s findings that heavy metals are very common in rice products and that baby food cereals and snacks are higher in heavy metals than baby food fruit and vegetables are consistent with results from the Total Diet Study, an FDA program that monitors Americans’ intake of heavy metals and other contaminants from foods and beverages.
A Largely Unregulated Market
Our survey also suggests
that parents are often unaware of the potential risks of heavy metals in
their kids’ food. About half, for example, believed that children’s
foods are subject to more strict regulation and safety testing
procedures than other packaged foods.
But they aren’t—even though the FDA has acknowledged the dangers heavy metals in baby and toddler foods could pose.
In 2016, the FDA did propose limiting inorganic arsenic in infant rice cereal to 100 parts per billion, and in 2013 proposed limiting inorganic arsenic in apple juice to 10 ppb, the federal arsenic standard for drinking water. But neither limit was ever finalized. The agency told CR it is on track to finalize these guidelines by the end of 2018.
We informed the FDA of our overall findings, and the agency told us: “The agency has made this a priority and is working to reduce the health risks these elements present, especially to those most vulnerable: children.”
The agency also said it “plans to consider a wide range of policies and actions to reduce exposure,” such as educating consumers on how to reduce the risks posed by toxic metals and requiring or encouraging industry to lower the amount of them in their products. In addition, it is looking into the risk posed by foods that contain multiple toxic metals, and working to identify products “for which these combinations are most prevalent, and exploring options for dealing with the issue.”
But they aren’t—even though the FDA has acknowledged the dangers heavy metals in baby and toddler foods could pose.
In 2016, the FDA did propose limiting inorganic arsenic in infant rice cereal to 100 parts per billion, and in 2013 proposed limiting inorganic arsenic in apple juice to 10 ppb, the federal arsenic standard for drinking water. But neither limit was ever finalized. The agency told CR it is on track to finalize these guidelines by the end of 2018.
We informed the FDA of our overall findings, and the agency told us: “The agency has made this a priority and is working to reduce the health risks these elements present, especially to those most vulnerable: children.”
The agency also said it “plans to consider a wide range of policies and actions to reduce exposure,” such as educating consumers on how to reduce the risks posed by toxic metals and requiring or encouraging industry to lower the amount of them in their products. In addition, it is looking into the risk posed by foods that contain multiple toxic metals, and working to identify products “for which these combinations are most prevalent, and exploring options for dealing with the issue.”
What Manufacturers Say
We contacted all of the baby
food manufacturers included in our testing. All stressed the importance
of safety, and some noted that heavy metals can be naturally occurring.
Most also said they did their own testing, and supported the government
setting limits for heavy metals in baby and toddler foods.
“We are a responsible company with high safety standards for our ingredients and our products,” read one typical response, from Sprout. “We are continuing to work with the fruit and vegetable industry to look for the cleanest sources of ingredients. We fully support the evolution of FDA safety regulations that help ensure the highest levels of food safety standards for babies.”
“We are a responsible company with high safety standards for our ingredients and our products,” read one typical response, from Sprout. “We are continuing to work with the fruit and vegetable industry to look for the cleanest sources of ingredients. We fully support the evolution of FDA safety regulations that help ensure the highest levels of food safety standards for babies.”
Assessing the Risks
Just how dangerous is it for
babies and toddlers to eat these foods? And what if you’ve been feeding
your child one or more of these products every day for the past year or
two or three?
To answer these questions, we looked into the potential health risks, based on several factors.
First, we estimated how much of these foods children typically eat, using data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.
We then reviewed the medical research to determine at what exposure level each heavy metal could increase the risk of certain cancers, kidney damage, reproductive disorders, and neurobehavioral problems.
Last, we put that information together with our own test results (along with the average body weights for each age group) and calculated how much a child would need to eat of the tested foods to face potential health risks.
“No amount of heavy metals such as lead can be considered safe,” says CR’s Rogers, “but less is certainly better.”
In many of the foods we tested, the levels of heavy metals combined were more concerning than the level of any one specific heavy metal. “Each of these metals has shown similar adverse effects on children’s developing brains and nervous systems, and there are potential additive effects,” says CR’s Akinleye.
Another concern: The amounts of heavy metals in any one type of food may be low, but because heavy metals are so pervasive in foods and the environment—and because they tend to accumulate in the body—small amounts can add up.
You’ll find a list of products we tested and the daily limit—the number of servings that pose a potential health risk—for each in the chart below.
If you have been giving these foods to your child, CR’s Dickerson says that it is important to have perspective. “The heavy metal content in baby and toddler foods is a concerning issue but not an imminent threat,” he says. “The risk comes from exposure over time, and the risk can be mitigated. Making changes to your child’s diet now can reduce the chance of negative outcomes in the future.”
There are many variables—genetics, type of exposure, and the overall quality of a child’s diet, for example—that affect how an individual responds to heavy metals in his or her environment or diet.
“You really don’t know if an individual child is going to be adversely affected,” says pediatrician Jennifer Lowry, M.D., chair of the American Academy of Pediatrics’ Council on Environmental Health. “This is not going to be a situation where we’ll find an acute, alarming level of these metals in the blood, as with ingesting lead from paint.” She says she typically would advise concerned parents to give their kids a variety of foods, and to remove the more concerning items from their diets.
And for some of the products CR tested, despite the presence of heavy metals, you’d have to feed your child quite a bit of the food for it to pose a risk. For instance, our analysis found that it would take more than five servings of Plum Organics’ Little Yums Organic Teething Wafers per day before his or her intake from that product alone reached a level of concern.
To answer these questions, we looked into the potential health risks, based on several factors.
First, we estimated how much of these foods children typically eat, using data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.
We then reviewed the medical research to determine at what exposure level each heavy metal could increase the risk of certain cancers, kidney damage, reproductive disorders, and neurobehavioral problems.
Last, we put that information together with our own test results (along with the average body weights for each age group) and calculated how much a child would need to eat of the tested foods to face potential health risks.
“No amount of heavy metals such as lead can be considered safe,” says CR’s Rogers, “but less is certainly better.”
In many of the foods we tested, the levels of heavy metals combined were more concerning than the level of any one specific heavy metal. “Each of these metals has shown similar adverse effects on children’s developing brains and nervous systems, and there are potential additive effects,” says CR’s Akinleye.
Another concern: The amounts of heavy metals in any one type of food may be low, but because heavy metals are so pervasive in foods and the environment—and because they tend to accumulate in the body—small amounts can add up.
You’ll find a list of products we tested and the daily limit—the number of servings that pose a potential health risk—for each in the chart below.
If you have been giving these foods to your child, CR’s Dickerson says that it is important to have perspective. “The heavy metal content in baby and toddler foods is a concerning issue but not an imminent threat,” he says. “The risk comes from exposure over time, and the risk can be mitigated. Making changes to your child’s diet now can reduce the chance of negative outcomes in the future.”
There are many variables—genetics, type of exposure, and the overall quality of a child’s diet, for example—that affect how an individual responds to heavy metals in his or her environment or diet.
“You really don’t know if an individual child is going to be adversely affected,” says pediatrician Jennifer Lowry, M.D., chair of the American Academy of Pediatrics’ Council on Environmental Health. “This is not going to be a situation where we’ll find an acute, alarming level of these metals in the blood, as with ingesting lead from paint.” She says she typically would advise concerned parents to give their kids a variety of foods, and to remove the more concerning items from their diets.
And for some of the products CR tested, despite the presence of heavy metals, you’d have to feed your child quite a bit of the food for it to pose a risk. For instance, our analysis found that it would take more than five servings of Plum Organics’ Little Yums Organic Teething Wafers per day before his or her intake from that product alone reached a level of concern.
A Loss for Public Safety
While there is a lack of
federal regulations for the amount of heavy metals in most foods,
California does set a threshold for lead. Products sold in the state
that can expose someone to more than 0.5 microgram of lead per day must
have a health warning, according to California’s Safe Drinking Water and
Toxic Enforcement Act (often referred to as Proposition 65).
Based on our test results, all the samples of Beech-Nut Classics Sweet Potatoes, Earth’s Best Organic Sweet Potatoes, and Gerber Turkey & Rice had concerning levels of lead. We purchased one sample of each of those products in California, and we believe our samples exceeded the state’s threshold.
We sent our findings to Beech-Nut, Gerber, and Hain Celestial, the parent company of Earth’s Best.
Gerber and Hain Celestial said that they believed their products complied with the California law. But Gerber also said it went back and tested samples of its turkey and rice dinner from the same three batches CR tested. The company said it got similar results and that it was “reviewing our protocols for further improvement.”
Beech-Nut said that it had "reviewed the ingredient testing reports of its independent lab, which showed the lead levels as undetectable," but that as a result of an internal investigation, the company “upgraded the requirements for our third-party lab testing."
Hain Celestial also pointed to a 2015 case involving the nonprofit Environmental Law Foundation. The organization had sued Beech-Nut and other companies after it claimed that its testing found that some of the companies’ fruit juices and other fruit products sold in California exceeded 0.5 mcg of lead in one serving, and therefore should require a warning.
However, the defense lawyers successfully argued that the daily limit could be averaged over a two-week period, based on typical consumption levels. This means, for example, that a person could consume up to 13 servings of a product with 0.5 mcg per serving in 14 days without exceeding the daily threshold.
CR’s food safety experts are troubled by this ruling. “We believe the outcome of this case significantly undermines public health, especially when it comes to protecting children,” says CR’s Dickerson. “The amount of lead permitted under this ruling is not a level we consider safe, given what we know about consumption of these baby foods.”
Jay Schneider, Ph.D., a professor of anatomy, pathology, and cell biology at Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia, has examined hundreds of children who have suffered the effects of lead exposure. Given lead’s extreme toxicity, and the inability to reverse or remediate its effects, he calls it “outrageous” that there would even be the tiniest amount of lead in children’s food.
“It’s extremely potent,” says Schneider. “We know that there is no level of lead in the blood of a child that is safe.”
Based on our test results, all the samples of Beech-Nut Classics Sweet Potatoes, Earth’s Best Organic Sweet Potatoes, and Gerber Turkey & Rice had concerning levels of lead. We purchased one sample of each of those products in California, and we believe our samples exceeded the state’s threshold.
We sent our findings to Beech-Nut, Gerber, and Hain Celestial, the parent company of Earth’s Best.
Gerber and Hain Celestial said that they believed their products complied with the California law. But Gerber also said it went back and tested samples of its turkey and rice dinner from the same three batches CR tested. The company said it got similar results and that it was “reviewing our protocols for further improvement.”
Beech-Nut said that it had "reviewed the ingredient testing reports of its independent lab, which showed the lead levels as undetectable," but that as a result of an internal investigation, the company “upgraded the requirements for our third-party lab testing."
Hain Celestial also pointed to a 2015 case involving the nonprofit Environmental Law Foundation. The organization had sued Beech-Nut and other companies after it claimed that its testing found that some of the companies’ fruit juices and other fruit products sold in California exceeded 0.5 mcg of lead in one serving, and therefore should require a warning.
However, the defense lawyers successfully argued that the daily limit could be averaged over a two-week period, based on typical consumption levels. This means, for example, that a person could consume up to 13 servings of a product with 0.5 mcg per serving in 14 days without exceeding the daily threshold.
CR’s food safety experts are troubled by this ruling. “We believe the outcome of this case significantly undermines public health, especially when it comes to protecting children,” says CR’s Dickerson. “The amount of lead permitted under this ruling is not a level we consider safe, given what we know about consumption of these baby foods.”
Jay Schneider, Ph.D., a professor of anatomy, pathology, and cell biology at Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia, has examined hundreds of children who have suffered the effects of lead exposure. Given lead’s extreme toxicity, and the inability to reverse or remediate its effects, he calls it “outrageous” that there would even be the tiniest amount of lead in children’s food.
“It’s extremely potent,” says Schneider. “We know that there is no level of lead in the blood of a child that is safe.”
How Heavy Metals Get Into Food
Where are these heavy metals coming from, and why are they in food?
They all are part of the earth’s crust, so they are naturally found in the environment. But most of the heavy metals in food come from soil or water that has been contaminated through either farming and manufacturing practices (such as pesticide application, mining, and smelting) or pollution (such as the use of leaded gasoline).
Crops absorb heavy metals from earth and water, the same way they do nutrients. But some crops take up more of the compounds than others. For example, rice absorbs about 10 times more arsenic than other grains absorb.
In packaged foods, it is also possible that something in the manufacturing process, such as the type of metal used in machinery, contributes to contamination.
It's also important to know that these heavy metals aren't just in packaged baby and toddler foods. “Rice, for instance, is known to contain inorganic arsenic whether it is part of an infant cereal, a rice pilaf mix, or a rice cracker,” Akinleye says. So, depending on the food type and source, making your own baby food won't necessarily reduce your child’s heavy metal intake.
Still, some research suggests that children’s food may have more of certain heavy metals than other foods. For example, according to the Environmental Defense Fund’s recent analysis of the FDA’s Total Diet Study data, more samples of baby food apple juice, grape juice, and carrots had detectable levels of lead than regular versions of those foods. Why that would be the case is unclear, though it is possible that there are differences in the manufacturing processes.
They all are part of the earth’s crust, so they are naturally found in the environment. But most of the heavy metals in food come from soil or water that has been contaminated through either farming and manufacturing practices (such as pesticide application, mining, and smelting) or pollution (such as the use of leaded gasoline).
Crops absorb heavy metals from earth and water, the same way they do nutrients. But some crops take up more of the compounds than others. For example, rice absorbs about 10 times more arsenic than other grains absorb.
In packaged foods, it is also possible that something in the manufacturing process, such as the type of metal used in machinery, contributes to contamination.
It's also important to know that these heavy metals aren't just in packaged baby and toddler foods. “Rice, for instance, is known to contain inorganic arsenic whether it is part of an infant cereal, a rice pilaf mix, or a rice cracker,” Akinleye says. So, depending on the food type and source, making your own baby food won't necessarily reduce your child’s heavy metal intake.
Still, some research suggests that children’s food may have more of certain heavy metals than other foods. For example, according to the Environmental Defense Fund’s recent analysis of the FDA’s Total Diet Study data, more samples of baby food apple juice, grape juice, and carrots had detectable levels of lead than regular versions of those foods. Why that would be the case is unclear, though it is possible that there are differences in the manufacturing processes.
Organic Isn’t Safer
Although foods that are
certified as organic by the USDA do have benefits—including lower
pesticide levels and less impact on the environment—avoiding heavy
metals isn’t one of them. Twenty of the products in our test were
labeled organic, and, as a whole, they were just as likely to contain
heavy metals as the conventional ones.
“Arsenic and lead, which have been used in the past as pesticides, are prohibited under organic regulations,” says Charlotte Vallaeys, Consumer Reports’ food labeling expert. But because these heavy metals are contaminants in the soil, there's no reason why organic baby foods would contain lesser amounts.”
That may surprise many parents, though. In our survey, 39 percent of parents who purchased packaged foods sometimes bought organic food for their children, and they cited avoiding lead, arsenic, and other heavy metals as their primary reason for doing it.
“Arsenic and lead, which have been used in the past as pesticides, are prohibited under organic regulations,” says Charlotte Vallaeys, Consumer Reports’ food labeling expert. But because these heavy metals are contaminants in the soil, there's no reason why organic baby foods would contain lesser amounts.”
That may surprise many parents, though. In our survey, 39 percent of parents who purchased packaged foods sometimes bought organic food for their children, and they cited avoiding lead, arsenic, and other heavy metals as their primary reason for doing it.
What Needs to Change
Parents want tough standards
for the foods they feed their children: 72 percent of those in our
recent survey said that baby foods should be subject to more stringent
regulation and safety testing than other foods.
And CR’s recent tests suggest that the FDA needs to set regulatory limits for heavy metals in baby foods. Read the letter CR sent to the FDA about our findings (PDF).
“Any limits would be welcome, but the ultimate goal is to have no measurable levels of any heavy metal in baby and toddler foods,” says Jean Halloran, director of food policy initiatives at Consumers Union, the advocacy division of Consumer Reports.
Our test results also showed that goal is achievable.
“In about a third of the products we tested, the amounts of heavy metals were below our level of concern, and for some of the products, amounts of some metals were not measurable,” Rogers says. “Every category of food we tested was represented in that lower-risk group. That indicates that there are ways for manufacturers to significantly reduce or eliminate these metals from their products.”
To that end, Halloran says that the FDA should take the following actions, quickly:
Establish aggressive targets. Set a goal of having no measurable amounts of cadmium, lead, or inorganic arsenic in baby and children's food—and use the most sensitive testing methods to determine the presence of those metals.
Create and enforce benchmarks. To reach its goals in baby and children’s food, the FDA should set incremental targets for industry to meet along the way.
Meanwhile, finalize proposed guidelines. By the end of 2018 (the FDA’s planned deadline), the agency should limit inorganic arsenic in apple juice to 10 ppb, the arsenic standard for bottled water, and limit inorganic arsenic in infant rice cereal to 100 ppb. In addition, it should revise existing guidance for lead in fruit juice to reduce the limit from 50 to 5 ppb, the standard for bottled water.
(Sign CR's petition to tell the FDA to take action to keep infants and children safe.)
And CR’s recent tests suggest that the FDA needs to set regulatory limits for heavy metals in baby foods. Read the letter CR sent to the FDA about our findings (PDF).
“Any limits would be welcome, but the ultimate goal is to have no measurable levels of any heavy metal in baby and toddler foods,” says Jean Halloran, director of food policy initiatives at Consumers Union, the advocacy division of Consumer Reports.
Our test results also showed that goal is achievable.
“In about a third of the products we tested, the amounts of heavy metals were below our level of concern, and for some of the products, amounts of some metals were not measurable,” Rogers says. “Every category of food we tested was represented in that lower-risk group. That indicates that there are ways for manufacturers to significantly reduce or eliminate these metals from their products.”
To that end, Halloran says that the FDA should take the following actions, quickly:
Establish aggressive targets. Set a goal of having no measurable amounts of cadmium, lead, or inorganic arsenic in baby and children's food—and use the most sensitive testing methods to determine the presence of those metals.
Create and enforce benchmarks. To reach its goals in baby and children’s food, the FDA should set incremental targets for industry to meet along the way.
Meanwhile, finalize proposed guidelines. By the end of 2018 (the FDA’s planned deadline), the agency should limit inorganic arsenic in apple juice to 10 ppb, the arsenic standard for bottled water, and limit inorganic arsenic in infant rice cereal to 100 ppb. In addition, it should revise existing guidance for lead in fruit juice to reduce the limit from 50 to 5 ppb, the standard for bottled water.
(Sign CR's petition to tell the FDA to take action to keep infants and children safe.)
What Manufacturers Should Do
Children’s food manufacturers don’t have to wait for the FDA before they reduce the heavy metal content of their products.
More on Food Safety
One step they can take is to source their ingredients from areas that are less likely to be contaminated.
Research shows that plants grown in different parts of the globe—or even different parts of the same farm—can contain significantly different heavy metal levels. "Soil near big cities and centers of industry tends to contain more heavy metals," says chemist Tracy Allen, lab supervisor at the University of Massachusetts Soil and Plant Nutrient Testing Laboratory. But contamination can also be very localized, she says, "such as a 3- to 5-foot swath of contaminated soil around an old farmhouse that was coated in lead paint."
Many of the manufacturers we reached out to said they source ingredients from areas believed to have lower levels of heavy metals in the soil and regularly test samples of their products’ heavy metals content.
But, Halloran says, many could be doing more. In addition to reviewing their ingredients’ sources, they could ensure water and equipment used for manufacturing don’t contribute to contamination. “The truth is that when you look at Gerber and Beech-Nut, which make up more than half of the samples in our tests, some products are more concerning than others.”
Research shows that plants grown in different parts of the globe—or even different parts of the same farm—can contain significantly different heavy metal levels. "Soil near big cities and centers of industry tends to contain more heavy metals," says chemist Tracy Allen, lab supervisor at the University of Massachusetts Soil and Plant Nutrient Testing Laboratory. But contamination can also be very localized, she says, "such as a 3- to 5-foot swath of contaminated soil around an old farmhouse that was coated in lead paint."
Many of the manufacturers we reached out to said they source ingredients from areas believed to have lower levels of heavy metals in the soil and regularly test samples of their products’ heavy metals content.
But, Halloran says, many could be doing more. In addition to reviewing their ingredients’ sources, they could ensure water and equipment used for manufacturing don’t contribute to contamination. “The truth is that when you look at Gerber and Beech-Nut, which make up more than half of the samples in our tests, some products are more concerning than others.”
What Parents Can Do
CR’s Dickerson says parents
should remember that exposure to heavy metals doesn’t guarantee that a
child will face health problems as a result, only that it increases that
chance. If you are concerned about possible exposure, talk with your
pediatrician about having your child tested.
It may not be possible to completely eliminate heavy metals from your food. But there are steps you can take to reduce the amount of heavy metals you and your children are exposed to, and to minimize some of the effects of heavy metals. “Just making changes now will go a long way to protecting your children, regardless of any prior exposure,” Dickerson says. These tips will help:
Limit the amount of infant rice cereal your child eats. Cereal is often a baby’s first solid food because it is easy to swallow, and it’s usually fortified with iron, an important nutrient for babies. But both the FDA and the American Academy of Pediatrics say that there’s no reason it must be rice cereal and that infants should be given a variety of cereals, noting concerns about levels of inorganic arsenic in those products. “Parents have other choices—there are iron-fortified cereals made from other whole grains, such as oats, that are lower in inorganic arsenic,” Rogers says.
Choose the right rice. In previous CR tests, brown rice had more inorganic arsenic than white rice of the same type. White basmati rice from California, India, and Pakistan, and sushi rice from the U.S., are good choices that had, on average, half as much inorganic arsenic as most other types. Rice cakes, cereal, and pasta were also high in inorganic arsenic.
Rethink rice prep. Cook it in a large amount of water—the FDA recommends 6 to 10 parts water to 1 part rice—and drain it well afterward. This will help reduce arsenic content.
Limit packaged snacks. Many contain rice flour, but even those without it don’t supply much nutritional value. “Even without the heavy metal risks, snack items aren’t a necessary part of your child’s diet, and they can have added sugars and sodium,” says Amy Keating, R.D., a nutritionist at Consumer Reports. The same goes for rice cakes, rice crackers, and chips that you and your child may eat.
Seek out whole foods low in heavy metals. Based on their review of the data from the Total Diet Study, our experts suggested a few easy-to-pack foods, suitable for snacking, that are very low in heavy metals: apples, applesauce (unsweetened), avocados, bananas, barley with diced vegetables, beans, cheese, grapes, hard-boiled eggs, peaches, strawberries, and yogurt.
Be wary of fruit juice. Past CR tests found inorganic arsenic and lead in many brands of apple and grape juices. In addition, all fruit juices are concentrated sources of sugars, and lack fiber. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends not giving any fruit juice to babies in the first year of life, and limiting juice to 4 ounces a day for kids ages 1 to 3 years and 6 ounces for 4- to 6-year-olds, for nutritional reasons.
Go easy on the chocolate. Cocoa powder may contain cadmium and/or lead. Cocoa itself may have more than dark chocolate, and dark chocolate may have more than milk chocolate.
Pick the right fish. Bigeye tuna, king mackerel, orange roughy, shark, and swordfish are particularly high in methylmercury. Children and women of childbearing age should avoid these fish; others should eat them infrequently, if at all.
Take a pass on protein powders. These may contain arsenic, cadmium, and lead, according to tests from CR and others. Whey and egg-based powders tended to have less than plant-based ones—such as soy and hemp—but even they should be used in moderation. You probably don’t need them anyway. “The vast majority of people get plenty of protein from the foods they eat,” says Keating. “And when you get your protein from foods, you also benefit from all the other nutrients found in whole foods.”
Check your water. If you get your water from a well, or if your home has older pipes, consider having your water tested. Heavy metals sometimes seep into well water, and older pipes may have been made with lead.
Eat a broad array of healthful whole foods. Rotating the foods you eat may help you avoid overconsumption of heavy metals and provide a variety of nutrients that may help offset some of the damage heavy metals do to the body. These include calcium, iron, selenium, vitamin C, and zinc.
It may not be possible to completely eliminate heavy metals from your food. But there are steps you can take to reduce the amount of heavy metals you and your children are exposed to, and to minimize some of the effects of heavy metals. “Just making changes now will go a long way to protecting your children, regardless of any prior exposure,” Dickerson says. These tips will help:
Limit the amount of infant rice cereal your child eats. Cereal is often a baby’s first solid food because it is easy to swallow, and it’s usually fortified with iron, an important nutrient for babies. But both the FDA and the American Academy of Pediatrics say that there’s no reason it must be rice cereal and that infants should be given a variety of cereals, noting concerns about levels of inorganic arsenic in those products. “Parents have other choices—there are iron-fortified cereals made from other whole grains, such as oats, that are lower in inorganic arsenic,” Rogers says.
Choose the right rice. In previous CR tests, brown rice had more inorganic arsenic than white rice of the same type. White basmati rice from California, India, and Pakistan, and sushi rice from the U.S., are good choices that had, on average, half as much inorganic arsenic as most other types. Rice cakes, cereal, and pasta were also high in inorganic arsenic.
Rethink rice prep. Cook it in a large amount of water—the FDA recommends 6 to 10 parts water to 1 part rice—and drain it well afterward. This will help reduce arsenic content.
Limit packaged snacks. Many contain rice flour, but even those without it don’t supply much nutritional value. “Even without the heavy metal risks, snack items aren’t a necessary part of your child’s diet, and they can have added sugars and sodium,” says Amy Keating, R.D., a nutritionist at Consumer Reports. The same goes for rice cakes, rice crackers, and chips that you and your child may eat.
Seek out whole foods low in heavy metals. Based on their review of the data from the Total Diet Study, our experts suggested a few easy-to-pack foods, suitable for snacking, that are very low in heavy metals: apples, applesauce (unsweetened), avocados, bananas, barley with diced vegetables, beans, cheese, grapes, hard-boiled eggs, peaches, strawberries, and yogurt.
Be wary of fruit juice. Past CR tests found inorganic arsenic and lead in many brands of apple and grape juices. In addition, all fruit juices are concentrated sources of sugars, and lack fiber. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends not giving any fruit juice to babies in the first year of life, and limiting juice to 4 ounces a day for kids ages 1 to 3 years and 6 ounces for 4- to 6-year-olds, for nutritional reasons.
Go easy on the chocolate. Cocoa powder may contain cadmium and/or lead. Cocoa itself may have more than dark chocolate, and dark chocolate may have more than milk chocolate.
Pick the right fish. Bigeye tuna, king mackerel, orange roughy, shark, and swordfish are particularly high in methylmercury. Children and women of childbearing age should avoid these fish; others should eat them infrequently, if at all.
Take a pass on protein powders. These may contain arsenic, cadmium, and lead, according to tests from CR and others. Whey and egg-based powders tended to have less than plant-based ones—such as soy and hemp—but even they should be used in moderation. You probably don’t need them anyway. “The vast majority of people get plenty of protein from the foods they eat,” says Keating. “And when you get your protein from foods, you also benefit from all the other nutrients found in whole foods.”
Check your water. If you get your water from a well, or if your home has older pipes, consider having your water tested. Heavy metals sometimes seep into well water, and older pipes may have been made with lead.
Eat a broad array of healthful whole foods. Rotating the foods you eat may help you avoid overconsumption of heavy metals and provide a variety of nutrients that may help offset some of the damage heavy metals do to the body. These include calcium, iron, selenium, vitamin C, and zinc.
Where We Found Heavy Metals
Consumer Reports tested the
50 baby and toddler foods listed in the chart below. These products
represent a cross section of the market. We tested three samples of each
food, and the samples were purchased from different retailers across
the country. In the chart, these products are organized into four main
categories: cereals, snacks (such as bars, biscuits, and rice rusks), packaged fruits and vegetables, and entrées.
While our findings are a spot check of the market and cannot be used to draw definitive conclusions about specific brands, every product we tested had measurable levels of at least one of these toxic heavy metals: cadmium, inorganic arsenic, and/or lead; 34 of the products contained enough of a single heavy metal or a combination to reach a level that CR’s food safety experts believe warrants concern.
For each food, we have calculated a daily limit—the number of servings a child would need to eat for the food to pose potential health risks from exposure to the three heavy metals. The top section of each category lists foods that, based on CR’s analyses, pose less concern; there is no daily limit for these. The bottom section of each category shows foods of more concern, listed in order of the number of servings that would present potential health risks to a child. The lower the daily limit, the greater the risk from that food.
Unless otherwise noted, CR’s shoppers were able to still find these products on the market in the spring of 2018. Though in some cases the manufacturer told CR that the product has a new label or packaging, or has been reformulated, our shoppers were able to find the product as we tested it in stores or online.
While our findings are a spot check of the market and cannot be used to draw definitive conclusions about specific brands, every product we tested had measurable levels of at least one of these toxic heavy metals: cadmium, inorganic arsenic, and/or lead; 34 of the products contained enough of a single heavy metal or a combination to reach a level that CR’s food safety experts believe warrants concern.
For each food, we have calculated a daily limit—the number of servings a child would need to eat for the food to pose potential health risks from exposure to the three heavy metals. The top section of each category lists foods that, based on CR’s analyses, pose less concern; there is no daily limit for these. The bottom section of each category shows foods of more concern, listed in order of the number of servings that would present potential health risks to a child. The lower the daily limit, the greater the risk from that food.
Unless otherwise noted, CR’s shoppers were able to still find these products on the market in the spring of 2018. Though in some cases the manufacturer told CR that the product has a new label or packaging, or has been reformulated, our shoppers were able to find the product as we tested it in stores or online.
Meals and Entrées
LESS CONCERN
Gerber Lil' Entrées Chicken & Brown Rice With Peas & Corn
Serving size: 1 tray
No Daily Limit
MORE CONCERN
Earth's Best Organic Chicken & Brown Rice
Serving size: 4-oz. jar
Daily Limit: <1 Serving
Earth's Best Turkey, Red Beans & Brown Rice
Serving size: 1 pouch
Daily Limit: <1 Serving
Gerber Chicken & Rice
Serving size: 4-oz. jar
Daily Limit: <1 Serving
Gerber Turkey & Rice
Serving size: 4-oz. jar
Daily Limit: <1 Serving
Sprout Organic Baby Food Garden Vegetables Brown Rice With Turkey
Serving size: 1 pouch
Daily Limit: <1 Serving
Gerber Lil' Meals White Turkey Stew With Rice & Vegetables1
Serving size: 1 tray
Daily Limit: <0.5 Serving
Fruits and Vegetables
LESS CONCERN
Beech-Nut Classics Apple, Pear & Banana
Serving size: 4-oz. jar
No Daily Limit
Beech-Nut Naturals Carrot, Broccoli, Apple & Strawberry1
Serving size: 4-oz. jar
No Daily Limit
Beech-Nut Organic Just Apple & Green Beans
Serving size: 4-oz. jar
No Daily Limit
Beech-Nut Organic Peas, Green Beans, and Avocado
Serving size: 1 pouch
No Daily Limit
Gerber Grabbers Strong Veggies, Broccoli, Carrot, Banana, Pineapple
Serving size: 1 pouch
No Daily Limit
Gerber Organic Peas, Carrots & Beets1
Serving size: 1 pouch
No Daily Limit
Happy Baby Organics Purple Carrots, Bananas, Avocados & Quinoa
Serving size: 1 pouch
No Daily Limit
MORE CONCERN
Gerber Carrot, Pear & Blackberry
Serving size: 4-oz. container
Daily Limit: <1 Serving
Gerber Carrots Peas & Corn With Lil' Bits1
Serving size: 5-oz. container
Daily Limit: <1 Serving
Plum Organics Just Sweet Potato Organic Baby Food
Serving size: 1 pouch
Daily Limit: <1 Serving
Beech-Nut Classics Sweet Potatoes
Serving size: 4-oz. jar
Daily Limit: <0.5 Serving
Earth's Best Organic Sweet Potatoes, 1st Stage
Serving size: 2.5-oz. jar
Daily Limit: <0.5 Serving
Cereals
LESS CONCERN
Gerber Breakfast Buddies Hot Cereal With Real Fruit, Apple Cinnamon1
Serving size: 1 bowl
No Daily Limit
MORE CONCERN
Beech-Nut Complete Rice Single Grain Baby Cereal
Serving size: 0.5 cup
Daily Limit: <3 Servings
Happy Baby Organics Organic Probiotic Baby Cereal
Serving size: 4 tablespoons
Daily Limit: <3 Servings
Beech-Nut Complete Oatmeal Whole Grain Baby Cereal
Serving size: 0.5 cup
Daily Limit: <2.5 Servings
Beech-Nut Organic Oatmeal Whole Grain Baby Cereal
Serving size: 0.5 cup
Daily Limit: <2.5 Servings
Earth's Best Organic Whole Grain Oatmeal Cereal
Serving size: 4 tablespoons
Daily Limit: <2.5 Servings
Gerber Oatmeal Single Grain Cereal
Serving size: 0.5 cup
Daily Limit: <2.5 Servings
Gerber Organic Oatmeal Cereal
Serving size: 0.5 cup
Daily Limit: <2.5 Servings
Earth's Best Organic Whole Grain Rice Cereal
Serving size: 4 tablespoons
Daily Limit: <1 Serving
Snack Foods
LESS CONCERN
Beech-Nut Quinoa Crispies, Vanilla
Serving size: 1 bar
No Daily Limit
Ella's Kitchen Apples + Strawberries Nibbly Fingers
Serving size: 0.33 bar
No Daily Limit
Gerber Graduates Puffs Cereal Snack, Strawberry Apple
Serving size: 0.5 cup
No Daily Limit
Gerber Lil' Beanies Baked Snack Made With Beans, White Cheddar & Broccoli1
Serving size: 26 pieces
No Daily Limit
Gerber Lil' Crunchies Baked Corn Snack Mild Cheddar
Serving size: 16 pieces
No Daily Limit
Gerber Lil' Crunchies Baked Corn Snack Vanilla Maple
Serving size: 16 pieces
No Daily Limit
Gerber Organic Puffs, Puffed Grain Snack, Apple
Serving size: 0.5 cup
No Daily Limit
MORE CONCERN
Gerber Graduates Arrowroot Cookies
Serving size: 1 cookie
Daily Limit: <6 Servings
Plum Organics Little Yums Organic Teething Wafers, Pumpkin & Banana1
Serving size: 1 Wafer
Daily Limit: <5.5 Servings
Gerber Graduates Cinnamon Graham Animal Crackers
Serving size: 2 crackers
Daily Limit: <4.5 Servings
Gerber Graduates Banana Cookies
Serving size: 1 cookie
Daily Limit: <4 Servings
Baby Mum-Mum Banana Rice Rusks
Serving size: 4 rusks
Daily Limit: <3 Servings
Baby Mum-Mum Vegetable Rice Rusks
Serving size: 4 rusks
Daily Limit: <3 Servings
Gerber Graduates Waffle Wheels Puffed Grain Snack, Banana Cream
Serving size: 4 pieces
Daily Limit: <3 Servings
Gerber Graduates Lil' Biscuits Vanilla Wheat
Serving size: 1 biscuit
Daily Limit: <2.5 Servings
Gerber Graduates Cereal Bars, Strawberry Banana
Serving size: 1 bar
Daily Limit: <1.5 Servings
Parent's Choice (Walmart) Little Puffs Cereal Snack, Strawberry Apple
Serving size: 0.5 cup
Daily Limit: <1.5 Servings
Plum Organics Mighty Sticks Whole Grain Snacks, Berry Beet1
Serving size: 1 pack
Daily Limit: <1.5 Servings
Sprout Organic Quinoa Puffs Baby Cereal Snack, Apple Kale
Serving size: 0.33 cup
Daily Limit: <1.5 Servings
Earth's Best Organic Sunny Days Snack Bars, Strawberry
Serving size: 1 bar
Daily Limit: <1 Serving
Happy Baby Organics Superfood Puffs, Apple & Broccoli
Serving size: 0.5 cup
Daily Limit: <1 Serving
Happy Baby Organics Superfood Puffs, Purple Carrot & Blueberry
Serving size: 0.5 cup
Daily Limit: <1 Serving
1 Manufacturer told CR that the product has been discontinued, but we were still able to find it online and in stores.
Tuesday, November 20, 2018
水银温度计、耳温枪、电子体温计，量体温到底哪个最准？
该用那种体温计比较好呢？
为了了解大家的看法，我和一位朋友圈宝爸（某重点大学硕士毕业，学材料的）展开了如下对话。
他：“当然水银的更准啊，医院都用水银的。”
我：“为什么会觉得水银的更准？”
他：“你不觉得涉及的环节越多，受到的干扰越大吗？热量和电信号之间的转换肯定没那么精确，尤其是便宜的……”
我：“这样啊？可是利用热胀冷缩原理的水银温度计不是更不精确吗？尤其是玻璃管的工艺更是充满了不确定性……”
他：“玻璃管的工艺比热敏电阻什么的简单多了，越简单的越靠谱，水银的简单暴力好吗！但凡涉及转换的，精度都有影响。
听起来竟然十分有道理，一时不知从何反驳……
实际上，正确使用的情况下，电子测温器准确性很高，可以满足日常需要，而且比水银体温计要安全。更重要的是，测得的体温只是参考而已，要不要给孩子吃药、带孩子去医院，还要看症状和感受来综合判断。
电子测温器比水银体温计更安全| 图片来源：Pixabay
目前市面上常见的电子测温仪器主要有耳温枪、额温枪和电子体温计三种。
耳温枪和额温枪主要依靠传感器接收人体的红外线来判断体温，在理想状态下，测得的结果应该是准确的。很多人觉得“测不准”，主要是因为使用方法不正确。
额温的影响因素太多了，室温、皮肤的干燥程度都会影响结果，刚洗过脸或摘下冰宝贴就直接测得的“体温”，也并不能反映人体的真实温度。没有任何一个正规的医疗机构会用额温枪来作为判断发热与否的工具。但额温枪胜在方便、快捷，经常用在幼儿园、游乐场、机场、火车站这种人流量大，需要快速筛查发热患者的地方。
额温枪
耳温枪测量的是鼓膜的温度，最能反映人体的真实体温，也是大多数医疗场所替换水银体温计之后用来判断体温的依据。耳温枪有不同的种类，有的需要戴一次性的“帽子“，有的不需要。如果搞错了，或者“帽子”有破损，测出来的温度就是不准确的。
而且，因为人的耳道并不是直的，3岁以内的婴幼儿测量耳温时，需要把耳廓向后外下方提，3岁以上要向后外上方提，才能将耳温枪放在正确的位置。6个月以下小宝宝的耳道直径较小，不适宜用耳温枪。另外，如果短时间内多次反复测量，耳温枪本身会影响耳道的温度，也会影响测量结果的准确性。
电子体温计应该是这三种电子测温仪器里面发挥最稳定的一个，使用方法和注意事项与经典水银体温计差不多，都是放在舌下、腋下或直肠，最符合大众的使用习惯，测得的温度准确性也是很高的。
但它的缺点是，与前两种设备相比，测量体温需要的时间略长，不同品牌所需时间从30秒到3分钟以上不等。另外，饮食（冷饮、热饮）、剧烈运动、洗澡等都会影响测量结果，需要等30分钟后再测量。
电子体温计需要的时间较长，可能会有孩子不配合的问题
上面提到的三种电子测温工具，都有共同的特点，也是缺点：对使用方法要求相对严苛。很多人会觉得水银体温计更准确，应该也是出于这一原因。
要想测得准，买了电子测温设备之后，一定要仔细阅读说明书。不同厂家的产品，使用方法不大一致。另外，测量的精度会随着价位的升高而提高。
那用水银体温计呢？毕竟现在很多医院都还在用。
水银体温计好不好呢？| 图片来源：Pixabay
另外一个原因是，水银体温计易清洗，易消毒。在医院，使用体温计的患者众多，接触式的测量方式总会存在交叉感染的风险。按照消毒隔离原则的规定，体温计需要用500毫克/升的有效氯溶液浸泡消毒，电子产品很难使用这样的消毒方式。
家庭使用水银体温计有安全隐患
现在，世界卫生组织倡议在2020年淘汰水银体温计和水银血压计，这个伟大的发明将逐步退出历史舞台。淘汰水银体温计之后，医院会使用耳温枪测体温，耳温枪有一次性的“帽子”可以替换，不需要整体浸泡消毒。
而在家庭使用的场景中，如果不考虑经济因素，电子测温器是能满足日常需要的更合适的选择。
在日常使用中，孩子发烧时，我的选择是：手摸+耳温枪。先用手摸定性，觉得可能发烧了，再使用耳温枪量一下确认是否真的发烧，耳温测量的精度和误差都在可接受范围之内。
耳温枪在家庭中也是不错的选择
一个广为流传的公式说，腋温+0.5℃=口温，口温+0.5℃=肛温，这其实并不准确。人体的不同部位，温度的正常值范围是不同的，同时也受到年龄、穿着、运动情况等等因素的影响，个体差异很大，并不能简单粗暴地按照上边的公式换算。每个部位都有各自的正常温度范围，各自比较即可，不同的人不同部位测得的体温比较没有意义。
尤其是就医的时候，只要告诉医生，“我量的是耳温，38.2℃”，就好了，不需要加减，否则可能会影响医生的判断。
体温只是参考，用药要看症状和感受 | 图片来源：Pixabay
最重要的是， 体温只是一个参考，是否需要用药、何时用药，要根据症状和感受来判断。
一般而言，医嘱建议38.5℃以上需要吃退热药，这是临时使用，并不是间隔几小时一定要使用。例如，对乙酰氨基酚每4小时使用一次的意思，并不是每过4小时就需要重复使用，而是如果发热不退，有必要重复用药时，需要与上次用药时间间隔4小时以上（24小时内不超过5次）。
是否使用退热药，还是要看宝宝的精神状态。如果能吃能玩，精神状态好，可以暂时不给药。而如果宝宝有寒战、手脚冰凉、面色苍白等症状，说明处在体温上升期，除了要给手脚适当保暖，增加舒适感之外，也可以根据经验提前用药，不需要等到体温上升到高热期，真的超过了38.5℃再给。
是否使用退烧药，要看宝宝的状态 | 图片来源：Pixabay
如果体温升高到41℃以上，除了给退烧药物之外，还要使用物理降温法快速降低体温并尽快就医。同时，因为用药后机体降温会大量出汗，一定要注意给宝宝补充水分。“汗”是身体退热时散热的一种方式，并不是“捂”出来的，切记，发热的时候一定不要捂汗。
如果体温在40℃以上持续一天，或者38.5℃以上持续三天，或宝宝在发热时候伴有呕吐、严重腹泻、抽搐、呼吸急促、精神萎靡，甚至昏睡、昏迷、眼窝凹陷、少尿甚至无尿的情况，一定要及时就医。
Saturday, November 17, 2018
美国最新热门免费儿童活动资源信息
之前我们给妈妈们分享过很多美国免费儿童活动资源，但是最近有一些因为店家关门（比如Toy R Us）或者各种各样的原因导致活动没有了。因此今天我们又重新给妈妈们整理了一篇最新并且也是最热门的美国免费儿童活动资源信息，并且我们还给大家分享了几个发布免费儿童活动信息的网站，以及在美国怎么搜索自己所在城市的各种儿童活动。心动不如心动，快带上娃娃一个一个活动去打卡吧！
Story time（很小的宝宝就可以参加）：
1、图书馆的story time
第一个要给大家推荐的还是我们之前安利过N次的美国图书馆story time，可以说是宝宝免费活动的首选场所！大部分美国图书馆story time一般每周都会有2次，连刚出生几个月的宝宝也可以去，而且基本上每个周末都会有，所以职场妈妈同样可以带宝宝参加！不仅有英文表演，还有中文表演，有专人给讲宝宝故事，带着宝宝唱唱跳跳。
图书馆story time每次最后半小时会让大家play and stay，大家可以和参加活动的其他妈妈玩一玩、聊一聊，如果住得近的话还可以相约playdate，带着宝宝交朋友。
另外，大部分美国图书馆在节假日时还会有魔术、木偶戏、中秋节、万圣节、圣诞节等专题活动，非常适合带宝宝参加，各位妈妈可以实时关注自己所在城市各大图书馆的信息日历，不要错过这些精彩的活动哦！
妈妈们只要在google里面搜“城市+Library Story Time”一般都能搜到，这里也给大家分享几个城市图书馆的story time的网址信息：（可以复制网址粘贴到浏览器打开哦！）
- 西雅图公共图书馆story time：https://www.spl.org/programs-and-services/fun-and-games/story-time
- 纽约公共图书馆story time：https://www.nypl.org/node/103218
- 洛杉矶公共图书馆story time：https://lacountylibrary.org/dodgers-visit/
- 波士顿各大图书馆story time：https://www.bostoncentral.com/activities/libraries.php
2、Pottery barn kids
除了各大图书馆，Pottery barn kids也有story time，时间是每周四的11点（纽约门店的story time的时间是10点到10点半）。更多详细信息可以点击https://www.potterybarnkids.com/customer-service/store-events.html?cm_type=fnav
3、Barnes & Noble Storytimes
美国最大的实体书店Barnes
& Noble也有给宝宝的story time，每个地方的时间可能会不一样，妈妈们可以去官网查一下。而且书店还有一个特别的summer
reading program，只要宝宝完成阅读8本书之后就可以获得免费的书，对于培养娃对书的兴趣很有激励作用呢！详细信息可以点击https://store-locator.barnesandnoble.com/
手工制作活动（3~5岁的宝宝参加比较合适）：
4、Home Depot Kids Workshop
美国各大城市的Home Depot也会经常举行Kids Workshop活动，这个也是很多妈妈都推荐的活动，主要是教孩子做一些木工小手工，会免费给孩子发小围裙和手工制作的材料，5到12岁的孩子都可以参加。具体的信息妈妈们可以点击https://www.homedepot.com/workshops/
5、Lakeshore
主要是教孩子做一些有趣的手工，图片看上去都超级可爱啊！每周六上午11点到下午3点，三岁以上的宝宝就可以参加。然后在West
LA, Newton, New Hyde Park & East
Brunswick这些地方的门店，每周日的上午11点到下午3点也有活动。具体活动信息点击http://www.lakeshorelearning.com/general_content/store_locations/storeCrafts.jsp
6、Michael's Kids' Club
每个星期六上午10点都有一个主题手工活动，3岁以上的宝宝只需要付2美元就可以参加，相当于不要钱有木有！而且娃在做手工的时候，爸妈还可以顺便shopping一下。
另外，在夏天的时候还有Camp Creativity，时间是每周一，周三和周五上午10点，花很少的钱就可以让孩子玩很久，而且做好的手工也可以带回家，可以说是非常超值了！详细信息可以点击https://www.michaels.com/classes
7、Lowe’s Build and Grow Kids Clinics
Lowe’s也会定期在某个周六早上10点到11点教孩子做手工，免费给孩子发小围裙、保护眼罩还有手工制作材料，任务完成后会有奖励贴纸。具体活动信息查看https://lowesbuildandgrow.com/pages/default.aspx
其他比较好的免费儿童活动：
8、Lego Store Free Mini Builds
乐高实体店每个月都会有一个免费教6~14岁宝宝拼装的活动，宝宝完成之后就可以带着免费的乐高回家，并且每个月的模型都会更换哦！
想带宝宝去的妈妈需要提前在乐高网站上注册会员（免费注册），并提前在网站上给宝宝申请（一般是当月的15号左右开放申请下个月的名额）。具体信息可以点击https://shop.lego.com/en-US/MiniBuilds
9、Disney store special events
迪斯尼商店每月都会好几次免费活动，具体也要上官网查你所在的城市门店的信息，需要先找到你自己的想去的店的网页，然后主页面下方就有具体的活动信息。官网现在发布的最近的活动有Mickey's
90th Anniversary、ShareYourEars，更多详细信息查询点击网址https://www.shopdisney.com/store-locator-and-special-events
10、William-Sonoma Junior Chef Classes
William-Sonoma是一家专卖厨房用品的店，它们会提供专门针对孩子的厨师教程，教孩子煮东西的技巧和厨具使用方法，不过需要收取一定的费用。比如下个月圣诞节快到了就有教孩子做姜饼小人和圣诞屋、哈利波特主题曲奇饼干的课程，8到13岁的孩子可以参加，每个孩子收30美元。
但是看着图片就超级精美，做完之后还可以留着圣诞节，让娃送给亲戚朋友也很好呀！除了给孩子提供课程之外，它们家也有一些针对大人的课程。更多信息可以点击网站https://www.williams-sonoma.com/pages/store-events/cooking-classes-events/#junior-chef
搜索美国各大城市免费儿童活动信息的网站：
这里再给妈妈们分享几个超级棒的可以很方便地搜美国各个城市free儿童活动（当然也有部分可能会收一点点钱）的英文网站，信息超级多，而且基本每天或每周都会有更新的，妈妈们有空的时候就可以翻翻看看，这样就再也不用愁带娃去哪里玩啦！
Activities Children：https://www.activitieschildren.com/
可以根据城市/宝宝年龄/室内or室外/免费or10、20、30不等收费的条件来筛选。
Events Near Here：https://www.eventsnearhere.com/find-events/All-States/All-Cities/Activities/Indoor-Activities/Events
种类超级丰富，不仅有宝宝的活动，还有很多大人可以参加的活动哦！
Time Out网站纽约免费儿童活动：https://www.timeout.com/new-york-kids/things-to-do/free-things-to-do-with-kids-in-new-york
点进去都有详细的活动介绍，而且基本上都是免费的。
NYC The Official Guide：https://www.nycgo.com/articles/free-for-kids
分享NYC的各种可以免费带娃去的博物馆、动物园、公园，以及各种免费的活动等等，时间和信息也都写的非常的清楚，NYC的妈妈快快点击收藏一下吧！
Sacramento4kids：https://sacramento4kids.com/events/free-events
这个网站上也能找到超级多的美国各个城市的免费儿童活动信息。
Eventbrite：https://www.eventbrite.com/d/ga--atlanta/free-kids/
这个网站上可以找到亚特兰大、迈阿密、纽约、洛杉矶、华盛顿、芝加哥、波士顿、费城这几个城市的免费儿童活动，比如免费玩保龄球、免费滑冰、免费看电影等等。
For kids to do：http://www.forkidstodo.net/
这个网站是一位有四个男孩的妈妈自己创办的，她会在网站上分享佐治亚的各种儿童活动，住在佐治亚的妈妈们可以点进去看看哦！
最后再教各位妈妈一个超级简单粗暴的方法，如果你想更在精准的了解自己城市有什么免费儿童活动的话，可以直接在google里面搜索free kids events in XXX，比如你搜free kids events in san diego
看看，是不是就会出来很多相关网页，有各种活动任你挑选啦！同理，你可以可以搜free kids events in NYC、Seattle、LA……以后再也不愁没地方带娃玩耍了！
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涨奶是因为乳房内乳汁太多，或者乳腺管不通畅，引起乳房发胀，并伴随疼痛的现象。尤其是从产后的第3天开始，症状会比较明显，主要表现为产妇胸部胀痛，乳房发热变硬，有些乳房凹陷等，涨奶不仅给妈妈们带来痛苦，也会对宝宝哺乳造成一定的影响。 涨奶原因 为什么会出现涨奶？主要...
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